Lippmann 1922: Public Opinion

Lippmann, W. (2017, 1922). Public opinion. Routledge.

in a nutshell
socio-psychological / cognitive approach (why? §§§), precursor of/to elitist theories of democracy (Schumpeter and Schattschneider)

citizens unable (and unmotivated) to form an accurate picture of the world (and thus of political issues) because of stereotyping, confirmation bias and motivated reasoning. even politicians and the press are struggling to decide (respectively: report on) policies rationally. in order to make democracy workable, Lippmann demands to supplement existing institutions:

government-employed experts are to provide unbiased information to politicians and press. citizens then only need to decide among politicians' offers (who contend with each other on the basis of the unbiased accurate information provided by the experts). (§§§ where does he explicitly spell out this elitest theory? or is this between the lines?)

summary
published after WW1. mass media: print (no TV/radio yet) (really no radio? §§§)

to navigate the world, which is too complex to know it directly, people need maps of the world. These "man-mad representations of the world" are necessarily fictitious. (why include §§§)

Barriers for citizens' understanding: -> bigger part of public opinions therefore constructed in the imagination (how? extrapolated?)
 * complexity and obscurity of facts themselves
 * censorship
 * simplified messages (length, poor language, framing)
 * people's lack of time
 * people's lack of interest

.

stereotypes: .
 * created often before encounter with facts (or instead) ("we define first, and then see"
 * influence our perception: anticipates "selection bias" and "motivated reasoning"

elite theory of democracy/public: elites form public opinion, often manufacturing consent (using symbols, vague reference, suggesting the ppl wanted their proposals all along, new psychological sophistication is revolutionary - more important than socio-structural shifts)

.

press .
 * seen by many as democratic institution which can prevent mischief on the part of politicians (and businesses etc.)
 * Unworkable because the press does not have the necessary information.

experts
 * democracy is hampered by failure to overcome the people's limited and prejudiced knowledge --> experts needed
 * these state-employed information providers must be clearly separated from decision makers, and insulated against them
 * critique: decisions about which information to collect cannot be made by experts (because it requires political will. but if politicians or the public is asked, the quest for knowledge becomes subject to manipulation and bias again). compare dewey's shoemaker allegory: ‘The man who wears the shoe knows best that it pinches and where it pinches, even if the expert shoemaker is the best judge of how the trouble is to be remedied.' And Dewey asserts that if public has no way to "inform the experts as to their needs" government must be an "oligarchy"